AcidHand

France, History Of, France from 1789 to 1815

2005-03-18T16:57:00.000-08:00

The best overview of the period is D.M.G. Sutherland, France 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter-Revolution (1985). General surveys of the French Revolution include William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989); and Norman Hampson, A Social History of the French Revolution (1963, reprinted 1982). The origins and the first phase of the Revolution are treated in Michel Vovelle, The Fall of the French Monarchy, 1787–1792 (1984; originally published in French, 1972). The best book on the Terror is still R.R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution (1941, reissued 1989). Martyn Lyons, France Under the Directory (1975), surveys the Revolution's later phase. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds.), A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989; originally published in French, 1988), is an important and original collection of short essays on selected events, actors, institutions, ideas, and historians of the French Revolution. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (1984), analyzes the imagery and sociology of revolutionary politics. Notable thematic studies include Georges Lefebvre, The Great Fear of 1789: Rural Panic in Revolutionary France (1973, reissued 1989; originally published in French, 1932); P.M. Jones, The Peasantry in the French Revolution (1988); Albert Soboul, The Parisian Sans-culottes and the French Revolution, 1793–4, trans. from French (1964, reprinted 1979); George Rudé, The Crowd in the French Revolution (1959, reprinted 1986); John McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (1969, reprinted 1982); Jean-Paul Bertaud, The Army of the French Revolution (1988; originally published in French, 1979); Emmet Kennedy, A Cultural History of the French Revolution (1989); and Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution: Doctrine and Action, 1789–1804 (1971, reissued 1981; originally published in French, 1961). The international dimension of the Revolution is interpreted in R.R. Palmer, The World of the French Revolution (1971). The best biography of a revolutionary leader is Leo Gershoy, Bertrand Barère: A Reluctant Terrorist (1962). A lively introduction to the Napoleonic era is J. Christopher Herold, The Age of Napoleon (1963, reprinted 1987). Informative volumes on the life and times of Napoleon include Felix Markham, Napoleon (1963); and Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (1984; originally published in French, 1977). The best volume on the Napoleonic regime in France is Louis Bergeron, France Under Napoleon (1981; originally published in French, 1972). Owen Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns (1987), is a critical and incisive analysis. For the views of historians across the generations, see Pieter Geyl, Napoleon: For and Against (1949, reissued 1976; originally published in Dutch, 1946).

Wage And Salary

2005-03-16T22:52:00.000-08:00

The purchasing-power theory of wages involves the relation between wages and employment and the business cycle and is not, therefore, a theory of wage determination. It stresses the importance of spending through consumption and investment as an influence upon the activity of the economy. The theory gained prominence during the Great Depression of the 1930s, when

League

2005-03-15T16:14:00.000-08:00

Any of several European units of measurement ranging from 2.4 to 4.6 statute miles (3.9 to 7.4 km). In English-speaking countries the land league is generally accepted as 3 statute miles (4.83 km), although varying lengths from 7,500 feet to 15,000 feet (2.29 to 4.57 km) were sometimes employed. An ancient unit derived from the Gauls and introduced into England by the Normans, the league was estimated by the Romans

O'brien, William Smith

2005-03-13T05:31:00.000-08:00

O'Brien sat in the British House of Commons from 1828 to 1848. Although he was a Protestant, he actively favoured Roman Catholic emancipation, but he also wished

Ijo

2005-03-10T11:39:00.000-08:00

West of the main Niger outlets each group occupies a cluster of villages linked by loose ties of cooperation, mainly against outsiders. Its members claim descent from a common

China, Provincial separatism

2005-03-08T17:09:00.000-08:00

The post-rebellion settlement not only pardoned several of the most powerful rebel generals but also appointed them as Imperial governors in command of the areas they had surrendered. Hopeh was divided into four new provinces, each under surrendered rebels, while Shantung became the province of An Lu-shan's former garrison army from P'ing-lu in Manchuria, which

Rouen

2005-03-06T20:56:00.000-08:00

Known to the Romans as Rotomagus, the town first became important in the 3rd century AD, when Christianity was brought there by St. Mellon, who was its first bishop. Invaded by the Normans in 876, it became subject to the English crown after

Lenin, Order Of

2005-03-05T05:31:00.000-08:00

Highest civilian award of the U.S.S.R. It was established in 1930 by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union and awarded to individuals, collectives, institutions, or organizations for outstanding achievements in research, art, technology, or economics or for the solution of tasks vital to the state. The order had one class. It was awarded automatically to “Heroes

Boina

2005-03-03T14:50:00.000-08:00

The other son, Adriamandisoarivo, continued the migration

Quietism

2005-03-01T09:23:00.000-08:00

A doctrine of Christian spirituality that, in general, holds that perfection consists in passivity (quiet) of the soul, in the suppression of human effort so that divine action may have full play. Quietistic elements have been discerned in several religious movements, both Christian and non-Christian, through the centuries; but the term is usually identified with

Alaska, The land

2005-02-26T09:06:00.000-08:00

The immense area of Alaska has a great variety of physical characteristics. Nearly one-third of the state lies within the Arctic Circle and has perennially frozen ground (permafrost) and treeless tundra. The southern coast and the panhandle at sea level are fully temperate regions. In these latter and in the adjoining Canadian areas, however, lies the world's largest

Sea People

2005-02-22T01:30:00.000-08:00

Any of the groups of aggressive seafarers who invaded eastern Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age, especially in the 13th century BC. They are held responsible for the destruction of old powers such as the Hittite Empire. Because of the abrupt break in ancient Near Eastern records as a result of the invasions, the precise extent and

Asturias

2005-02-20T20:35:00.000-08:00

Asturias was an independent Christian kingdom between 718 and 910 and was formed by Visigothic nobles and officials

France, History Of, Loss of control

2005-02-19T07:45:00.000-08:00

By August 1786 even Necker's successor, the frivolous if intelligent Charles-Alexandre de Calonne (1734–1802), had concluded that the French state was coming to a dead end. Although the crown had assured the moneymen that it would not default on the debt, as indeed it could not have done without alienating thousands of its natural supporters, Calonne found that he could no longer raise

Rhyme

2005-02-16T16:26:00.000-08:00

Also spelled rime the correspondence of two or more words with similar-sounding final syllables placed so as to echo one another. Rhyme is used by poets and occasionally by prose writers to produce sounds appealing to the reader's senses and to unify and establish a poem's stanzaic form. End rhyme (i.e., rhyme used at the end of a line to echo the end of another line) is most common, but internal,

González De Clavijo, Ruy

2005-02-15T20:37:00.000-08:00

A chamberlain to King Henry III of Castile, González was a member of Henry's second embassy to Timur. Departing from El Puerto de Santa María, near Cádiz, on May 22, 1403, he sailed via Constantinople (now Istanbul) to the eastern

Hurley, Patrick J(ay)

2005-02-13T04:46:00.000-08:00

Beginning the practice of law in Oklahoma (1908), Hurley served as a colonel in the American Expeditionary Force in World War I. During the 1920s he became active in Republican Party politics,

Spranger, (franz Ernst) Eduard

2005-02-11T00:51:00.000-08:00

Spranger was a student of Wilhelm Dilthey and continued his teacher's

Venezuela, Flag Of

2005-02-08T04:20:00.000-08:00

In 1797 Manuel Gual and José María España, plotting to overthrow Spanish rule in what is now Venezuela, proposed a complex flag with the colours white, yellow, blue, and red. In 1801 the revolutionary leader Francisco de Miranda chose red, yellow, and blue for his flag, although five years later he favoured black, red, and yellow. Various arrangements of the colours later appeared,

Computers And Information Systems

2005-02-04T09:54:00.000-08:00

In January the Slammer worm (a worm is a malicious program that replicates without human intervention) exploited a weakness in Microsoft Web server software, spreading so quickly that it overloaded tens of thousands of business and government computer servers on the Internet. It was the largest such incident since the Code Red and Nimda worms struck the Internet

Penal Colony

2005-02-03T02:25:00.000-08:00

Distant or overseas settlement established for punishing criminals by forced labour and isolation from society. Although a score of nations in Europe and Latin America transported their criminals to widely scattered penal colonies, such colonies were developed mostly by the English, French, and Russians. England shipped criminals to America until the American

Argentina

2005-01-31T00:13:00.000-08:00

The federal republic of Argentina occupies the eastern section of the Southern Cone of South America, along the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,518 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 33,507,000. Cap.: Buenos Aires. Monetary unit: peso, with (Oct. 4, 1993) an official rate of 1 peso to U.S. $1 (1.52 pesos = £ 1 sterling). President in 1993, Carlos Saúl Menem.

Opera, Viennese masters

2005-01-29T00:16:00.000-08:00

Italian opera buffa strongly attracted Viennese audiences, and Austrian composers were naturally influenced by it. Perhaps the most interesting of the Vienna-born composers of 18th-century comic opera was Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, whose Italianate Doktor und Apotheker (1786; libretto by Gottlieb Stephanie), though successful and lively, was overshadowed by the

Anderson, Viv

2005-01-27T09:01:00.000-08:00

Anderson began his professional football

Cytology

2005-01-23T17:04:00.000-08:00

The study of cells as fundamental units of living things. The earliest phase of cytology began with the English scientist Robert Hooke's microscopic investigations of cork in 1665. He observed dead cork cells and introduced the term “cell” to describe them. In the 19th century two Germans, the botanist Matthias Schleiden (in 1838) and the biologist Theodor Schwann (in 1839), were among

Chateaubriand, François-auguste-rené, Viscount (vicomte) De

2005-01-21T08:47:00.000-08:00

The youngest child of an eccentric and impecunious noble, Chateaubriand spent his school holidays largely with his sister in the romantic

Argolis, Gulf Of

2005-01-19T06:06:00.000-08:00

Modern Greek Argolikós Kólpos, deep inlet of the Mirtóön Sea, a western arm of the Aegean, eastern Peloponnese, Greece; it is separated from the Gulf of Saronikós by the Argolís peninsula. Some 30 miles (50 km) long and 20 miles (30 km) wide, it includes some small islands off the eastern shore, notably Psilí and Platiá. At the head of the gulf are its principal port, Nauplia, and the mouth of the Ínakhos River. Just north

Dollarization: Is It Worth It?

2005-01-17T06:59:00.000-08:00

To many analysts the trend toward dollarization was unexpected, since adopting a new currency can be quite costly. One major expense is the loss of seigniorage, the profit that a country earns when it issues a currency. For example, the cost to the U.S. of printing its currency is estimated at less than 0.1% of the currency's face value, yet the notes are sold at face value to banks.

Dislocation

2005-01-16T18:53:00.000-08:00

Dislocations are caused by stresses forceful enough to overcome the resistance of the ligaments, muscles, and capsule that hold the joint in place. A dislocation is called simple when the joint surfaces are not exposed to the air; it is called compound when

Substitution Reaction

2005-01-13T00:47:00.000-08:00

If the chlorine atom is displaced by other groups—such as the cyanide ion (-CN), the

Russell, John Scott

2005-01-11T23:09:00.000-08:00

A graduate of the University of Glasgow (at age 16), Russell became professor of natural philosophy in 1832 at the University of Edinburgh, where he first began his research into the nature of water

Bar Kokhba

2005-01-09T21:57:00.000-08:00

During his tour of the Eastern Empire in 131, the Roman emperor Hadrian decided upon a policy of Hellenization to integrate the Jews into the empire. Circumcision was proscribed, a Roman colony (Aelia) was founded in Jerusalem, and a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected over

Aqua Regia

2005-01-08T15:40:00.000-08:00

Aqua regia and other mixtures similar to it are used in analytical procedures for the solution

Memory Abnormality

2005-01-06T01:15:00.000-08:00

Disorders of memory must have been known to the ancients and are mentioned in several early medical texts, but it was not until the closing decades of the 19th century that serious attempts were made to analyze them or to seek their explanation in terms of brain disturbances. Of the early attempts, the most influential

Mcminnville

2005-01-03T00:10:00.000-08:00

City, seat (1886) of Yamhill county, northwestern Oregon, U.S., on the South Yamhill River. Settled in 1844 and named for McMinnville, Tennessee, it developed as a service centre for Yamhill Valley farmers. Linfield College (1849), affiliated with the American Baptist Churches, sponsors the Linfield Research Institute, a scientific laboratory. The economy is geared to lumber and food-processing

Wu-chou

2005-01-02T19:24:00.000-08:00

Formerly (1913–46) Ts'ang-wu, Pinyin Wuzhou, or Cangwu, city on the eastern border of the Kwangsi Chuang autonomous ch'ü (district), southern China. Wu-chou is situated at the confluence of the Hsi River with its northern tributary, the Kuei River. The city occupies a location of strategic and economic importance because it dominates the principal route between Kwangsi and southwest China as well as the Canton area along

Refrain

2004-12-31T08:25:00.000-08:00

A phrase, line, or group of lines repeated at intervals throughout a poem, generally at the end of the stanza. Refrains are found in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead and are common in primitive tribal chants. They appear in literature as varied as ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Latin verse, popular ballads, and Renaissance and Romantic lyrics. Three common refrains are

Hancock, Winfield Scott

2004-12-29T22:11:00.000-08:00

A West Point graduate (1844), he served with distinction in the Mexican War (1846–48). Hancock was appointed a

Chemical Synthesis

2004-12-27T21:10:00.000-08:00

Chemists synthesize chemical compounds that occur in nature in order to gain a better understanding of their structures.

Hawaiian Honeycreeper

2004-12-25T02:19:00.000-08:00

Any of 23 species of birds found only in the forests of the Hawaiian Islands. They constitute the family Drepanididae, order Passeriformes. Most of the species are called by native names (see amakihi; apapane; iiwi; mamo). Habitat destruction and the introduction of foreign birds and mammals has led to the extinction of at least 8 of the 23 species; most of the survivors are endangered.

Kara Mustafa Pasa, Merzifonlu

2004-12-22T21:08:00.000-08:00

During the grand vizierate (1661–76) of his brother-in-law Köprülü Fazil Ahmed Pasa, Kara Mustafa Pasa served as captain of the fleet, vizier in the State Council, and deputy grand vizier. Succeeding Fazil Ahmed Pasa as grand vizier,

Sunderland

2004-12-21T03:35:00.000-08:00

In the year 674 a monastery was founded in an area on the north riverbank known later as Monkwearmouth. St. Bede the Venerable (672/673–735), noted chronicler of Anglo-Saxon affairs, was born in the area and studied there.

Papyrus Column

2004-12-19T03:07:00.000-08:00

In Egyptian religion, amulet that conveyed freshness, youth, vigour, and the continuance of life to its wearer. The amulet, made of glazed ware or various types of stone, was shaped like a papyrus stem and bud. Its significance was perhaps derived from its ideographic value (Egyptian wadj, “green, fresh, vigorous”); for, just as the plant itself was vigorous and growing, so also

Basil, Liturgy Of Saint

2004-12-16T17:43:00.000-08:00

The Liturgy of St. Basil, of which two versions—the Alexandrian and the

Yalu River

2004-12-14T07:50:00.000-08:00

Wade-Giles romanization Ya-lü Chiang , Pinyin Yalu Jiang , Korean Amnok-kang river that forms the northwestern boundary between North Korea and the Northeast Region (Manchuria) of China. The Chinese provinces of Kirin and Liaoning are bordered by the river. Its length is estimated to be 491 miles (790 km), and it drains an area of some 12,259 square miles (31,751 square km). From a mountainous source in the Ch'ang-pai Mountains, the river flows southwestward to drain into

Zabid

2004-12-13T16:27:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Zebid, town, western Yemen. It lies on the bank of the Wadi Zabid and at the eastern fringe of the Tihamah coastal plain, about 10 miles (16 km) from the Red Sea coast. An ancient Yemeni centre, Zabid was refounded in AD 820 by the 'Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Ziyad, emissary of the caliph al-Ma'mun. From there the Ziyadi dynasty, his successors, ruled over large parts of southwestern Arabia. Upon the conquest

Gatlinburg

2004-12-11T05:02:00.000-08:00

City, Sevier county, eastern Tennessee, U.S. It lies about 30 miles (50 km) southeast of Knoxville, at the northwestern entrance to Great Smoky Mountains National Park. English and Scotch-Irish settlers began to arrive along the Little Pigeon River about 1795; by 1835 the settlement was called White Oak Flats. It was renamed in 1860 for Radford Gatlin, who opened a store there in 1855. In an American

World War I, The Western Front, 1916

2004-12-09T17:34:00.000-08:00

In 1914 the centre of gravity of World War I had been on the Western Front, in 1915 it shifted to the Eastern, and in 1916 it once more moved back to France. Though the western Allies had dissipated some of their strength in the Dardanelles, Salonika, and Mesopotamia, the rising tide of Britain's new armies and of its increased munition supplies promised the means for an offensive far

Nitride

2004-12-06T13:29:00.000-08:00

Binary compound of nitrogen with a more electropositive element, such as boron, silicon, and most metals. Certain metal nitrides are unstable, and most react with water to form ammonia and the oxide or hydroxide of the metal; but the nitrides of boron, vanadium, silicon, titanium, and tantalum are very refractory, resistant to chemical attack, and hard—and thus are useful

Wantage

2004-12-04T14:48:00.000-08:00

Town (“parish”), Vale of White Horse district, administrative county of Oxfordshire, historic county of Berkshire, England. It is an old market town and the birthplace of the Anglo-Saxon king Alfred the Great (871–899), whose statue stands in the marketplace. The town is a modest service centre in rural surroundings, but research establishments, including the atomic-energy research

Nemours, Jacques De Savoie, Duc De, (duke Of), Comte (count) De Genevois, Marquis De Saint-sorlin

2004-12-02T03:56:00.000-08:00

He won a military reputation in the French royal service on the eastern frontier and in Piedmont in the 1550s and against the Huguenots and their German allies in the 1560s. His amorous exploits at the Valois court were also admired; the chronicler Pierre de Brantôme characteristically

Eames, Charles; And Eames, Ray

2004-12-01T01:53:00.000-08:00

Charles Eames, who was also an architect, was for several years

Quillwork

2004-11-28T16:07:00.000-08:00

Type of embroidery done with the quills of a porcupine, or sometimes with bird feathers. This type of decoration was used by American Indians from Maine to Virginia and westward to the Rocky Mountains. For all practical purposes the art has died out. Quills were used on tobacco and tinder bags, knife and paintstick cases, cradles, armulets, burden straps, tunics, shirts,

Tonkin

2004-11-27T20:36:00.000-08:00

Northern Vietnam

Sculpture, Western, Early Cycladic

2004-11-25T21:48:00.000-08:00

The Early Cycladic period is celebrated principally

Puerto Lempira

2004-11-23T17:41:00.000-08:00

Town, northeastern Honduras. The town lies on an islet that forms part of Tánsin Island, facing the main passage into the Caratasca Lagoon. Fishing is the major economic activity of the area, and the town has a shrimp-packing plant. The shallow, swampy nature of the lagoon and the dense jungle vegetation of the hinterland have precluded the development of a port. An airfield

China, The armed forces

2004-11-21T14:43:00.000-08:00

The command of the armed forces was also arranged so as to avoid giving excessive powers to a single individual. General officers were usually appointed in pairs, and, in times of emergency or when a campaign was being planned with a defined objective, officers were appointed for a specific task; when their mission was fulfilled, their commands were brought to a close.

Vörösmarty, Mihály

2004-11-19T10:53:00.000-08:00

Born into an impoverished noble family, Vörösmarty soon had to provide for himself. From the age

Palaic Language

2004-11-17T00:38:00.000-08:00

Ancient Indo-European language of northwest Anatolia. Modern knowledge of the language comes from 21 passages dealing with the cult of the deity Ziparwa that appear in the cuneiform tablets found in the ruins of the Hittite archives at Bogazköy (the ancient Hattusa, in modern Turkey). In its inflectional systems and pronoun forms, it appears to be very close to the Hittite

Shensi, Administration and social conditions

2004-11-15T17:56:00.000-08:00

The province has three prefecture-level municipalities (shih) directly subordinated to the provincial government. One of these municipalities includes the provincial capital, Sian. The rest of the province is organized into seven prefectures (ti-ch'ü); the northern plateau area is divided between the Yü-lin Prefecture in the far north and the Yen-an Prefecture farther

Leadbelly

2004-11-13T09:17:00.000-08:00

Musical from childhood, Leadbelly played accordion, 6- and 12-string guitar, bass, and harmonica. He led a wandering life, learning songs by absorbing oral tradition.

East Australian Current

2004-11-11T08:37:00.000-08:00

Surface oceanic current, a section of the counterclockwise flow in the Tasman Sea, southwestern Pacific Ocean. It is formed by water masses from the Coral Sea—equatorial water driven by monsoonal winds from January to March and eastward subtropical flow from April to December—which pass southeast between the Great Barrier and Chesterfield reefs (20° S latitude), paralleling

Oeuvre, Théâtre De L'

2004-11-08T23:26:00.000-08:00

French Symbolist theatre founded in Paris in 1893 by Aurélien Lugné-Poë and directed by him until 1929. An actor and stage manager with André Antoine's Théâtre Libre, Lugné-Poë was introduced to Symbolist theatre at Paul Fort's Théâtre d'Art in the 1890s. When Fort retired from the theatre, Lugné-Poë assumed leadership in Symbolist production by opening what would become the Thé

Art For Art's Sake

2004-11-06T01:40:00.000-08:00

A slogan translated from the French l'art pour l'art, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. The phrase expresses the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needs no justification, that it need serve no political, didactic, or other end.

Izumi Kyoka

2004-11-03T15:50:00.000-08:00

Kyoka was born into a family of provincial artists and artisans, from whom he inherited artistic skill and a deep faith that shaded into an actual belief in mysterious forces. He

Abu Ali Mustafa

2004-11-01T06:12:00.000-08:00

Palestinian nationalist (b. 1938, Arabeh, Palestine—d. Aug. 27, 2001, Ram Allah, West Bank), was a cofounder and, from July 2000, secretary-general of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a radical faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He was born Mustafa az-Zibri and later took the nom de guerre Abu Ali Mustafa. As a young man he joined George Habash's Arab National

Earth, Stratigraphic findings

2004-10-30T18:52:00.000-07:00

The sequence of layered rocks on the landmasses that constituted Gondwanaland is strikingly similar for those time periods when the landmasses are believed to have been together. In these areas glacial deposits, for example, are overlain by coal-bearing shales and sandstones containing fossils of Glossopteris and Mesosaurus, which are in turn overlain by thick

Pacific Islands, Trust Territory Of The

2004-10-27T11:19:00.000-07:00

Former United Nations strategic-area trusteeship that was administered by the United States from 1947 to 1986. The territory consisted of more than 2,000 islands scattered over about 3,000,000 square miles (7,770,000 square km) of the tropical western Pacific Ocean, north of the Equator between latitudes 1° and 22° N and longitudes 130° and 172° E. Most of the islands are quite small, the total land area being only

China, Transportation

2004-10-25T06:31:00.000-07:00

Great emphasis has been placed on the development of transport, because it is closely related to the development of the national economy, the consolidation of the national defense system, and the strengthening of national unification. Nevertheless, China's domestic transport system continues to constitute a major constraint on economic growth and the efficient

Kirkcudbrightshire

2004-10-23T09:56:00.000-07:00

Also called Kirkcudbright or East Galloway historic county, southwestern Scotland. It lies entirely within Dumfries and Galloway council area. Kirkcudbrightshire forms the eastern portion of the historic province of Galloway. It encompasses the shores of the Solway Firth and Irish Sea between the Rivers Nith and Cree and extends inland across an undulating landscape of hills and valleys, rising in the

Biblical Literature, New Testament history

2004-10-22T19:32:00.000-07:00

(Jewish culture and history): Standard works are R.H. Pfeiffer (op. cit.); and George F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, 3 vol. (1927–30). (Qumran, Dead Sea Scrolls): Frank Moore Cross. Jr. (op. cit.); on Qumran and New Testament problems, see Krister Stendahl (ed.), The Scrolls and the New Testament (1958). (Greco-Roman culture and history): William W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilisation, 3rd ed. rev. (1952). For a broad cultural comparison, see Eric R. Dodds, Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety (1965). (Pauline chronology): The debate can be best assessed by comparing John Knox, Chapters in a Life of Paul (1950), with Dieter Georgi, Die Geschichte der Kollekte des Paulus für Jerusalem (1965).

Islamic World, Andalusia, the Maghrib, and sub-Saharan Africa

2004-10-20T19:48:00.000-07:00

Andalusia, far from the centre of Islamdom, illustrated the extent of 'Abbasid prestige and the assertion of local creativity. In the beginning of the period, Islamicate rule was represented by the Umayyads at Córdoba; established in 756 by a refugee from the 'Abbasid victory over the Syrian Umayyads, the Umayyad dynasty in Córdoba had replaced a string of virtually independent

Sea Bass

2004-10-17T05:40:00.000-07:00

Any of the numerous fishes of the family Serranidae (order Perciformes), most of which are marine and found in the shallower regions of warm and tropical seas. The family includes about 400 species, many of them well-known food and sport fishes. Although the term sea bass may be used for the family as a whole, the fishes themselves

Biblical Literature, Early stages

2004-10-15T09:39:00.000-07:00

The earliest Christian exegesis of the Old Testament is found in the New Testament, not in the written texts only but in the oral tradition lying behind them. Some lines of exegesis are present in so many separate strands of primitive Christian teaching that they are most reasonably assigned to Jesus, who began his Galilaean ministry with the announcement that

God (anderson Ind.), Church Of

2004-10-14T04:40:00.000-07:00

Christian fellowship that considers itself a “reformation movement” among Christians and not a church or sect; it accepts its title for identification purposes only. Its members believe that they have organized themselves to carry on the work of the church, but they do not believe they have organized the church, which is made up of all Christians and cannot be limited

Dominica, Flag Of

2004-10-12T22:14:00.000-07:00

As a British colony, Dominica obtained a coat of arms of its own in 1961. The arms had a shield with a blue and yellow cross, a banana tree, a coconut tree, a frog, a Carib Indian canoe, a lion symbolizing links with England, and a motto in the local language (“Apres Bondie c'est la ter”) meaning “After the Good Lord, the land.” Flanking the shield were imperial parrots, also known as sisserous,

Performing Arts, France.

2004-10-10T00:18:00.000-07:00

World War II was recalled in several films. In Laissez-passer, his film à clef, Bertrand Tavernier re-created the atmosphere of filmmaking in occupied France. Gérard Jugnot directed and starred in the accomplished Monsieur Batignole, about a Gentile butcher who saves a Jewish boy from the Gestapo. The American documentarist Frederick Wiseman filmed Catherine

Shensi, The people

2004-10-08T05:19:00.000-07:00

The people are nearly all Han (Chinese) and speak the Northwest Mandarin dialect. Some Hui (Chinese Muslim) communities remain in the south and northwest of the province. Most of the population is settled in the Wei and Han valleys; the uplands are more sparsely settled. The chief cities are Sian, Pao-chi, Hsien-yang, T'ung-ch'uan, and Han-chung. Other cities include An-k'ang,

Myers V. United States

2004-10-06T22:17:00.000-07:00

(1926), U.S. Supreme Court case that voided a legislative provision restricting the authority of the president to remove or replace certain postmasters without consent of the Senate. In the majority opinion, written by Chief Justice William H. Taft, the court held that the provision was an unconstitutional restriction on the president's power to exercise control over

Argentina, Mesopotamia

2004-10-03T23:39:00.000-07:00

East of the Gran Chaco, in a narrow depression 60 to 180 miles (100 to 300 km) wide, lies Mesopotamia, which is bordered to the north by the highlands of southern Brazil. The narrow lowland stretches for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southward, finally merging with the Pampas south of the Río de la Plata. Its designation as Mesopotamia (Greek: “Between the Rivers”) reflects the fact that its western and eastern

Yíthion

2004-10-01T04:23:00.000-07:00

Also spelled Githion , historically Gythium small port of Laconia, southern Peloponnese, Greece. It lies at the northwestern extremity of the Lakonikós Gulf at the mouth of the Gythius River. The town is connected by a causeway to Marathonísi Island, on which, according to the 2nd-century-AD Greek geographer Pausanias, the legendary Paris celebrated his nuptials with Helen. Yíthion is built on the site of Migonium,

Wood, Anthony

2004-09-29T21:58:00.000-07:00

Wood's historical survey of the University of Oxford and its various colleges was published as Historia et Antiquitates Universitatis Oxoniensis (1674; History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford). His vast

Argentina, Plant and animal life

2004-09-27T23:21:00.000-07:00

Argentina's fauna and flora vary widely from the country's mountainous zones to its dry and humid plains and its subpolar regions. In heavily settled regions the makeup of animal and plant life has been profoundly modified.

Selangor Civil War

2004-09-26T19:01:00.000-07:00

Following the disputed recognition of Abdul Samad as sultan in 1860, Malay chiefs gradually became polarized into two camps—generally the lower-river versus the upper-river chiefs. The main issue concerned the lucrative

Alexander Of Hales

2004-09-23T03:56:00.000-07:00

Alexander studied and taught in Paris, receiving the degrees of master of arts (before 1210) and theology (1220). He was archdeacon

Davao City

2004-09-21T10:34:00.000-07:00

City, southeastern Mindanao Island, Philippines. It lies at the mouth of the Davao River near the head of Davao Gulf. It is the leading regional centre for southeastern Mindanao and encompasses about 50 small ports in its commercial sphere. Pakiputan Strait, formed by offshore Samal Island, shelters both Santa Ana, an urban port servicing small vessels, and the deepwater

Low, Juliette Gordon

2004-09-19T09:54:00.000-07:00

Juliette Gordon was born into a prominent Georgia family. She was educated at private schools in Virginia and New York City and for some years thereafter traveled widely. She married William M. Low, a fellow native of Savannah, Georgia, who was living in England,

Jackson, Peter

2004-09-17T11:22:00.000-07:00

Jackson won the Australian heavyweight championship in 1886 and the British Empire title in 1892. On May 21, 1891, in San Francisco, he fought a 61-round

Atherton

2004-09-15T11:58:00.000-07:00

Town in the metropolitan borough of Wigan, metropolitan county of Greater Manchester, historic county of Lancashire, England. The manor was held by the Atherton family from the early 13th century to 1738. Atherton was an early centre of Presbyterianism, a chapel being built in 1645 and replaced in 1722; this is now the Chowbent (the name of the old part of the town) Unitarian Chapel. Cotton

Peribsen

2004-09-13T18:09:00.000-07:00

Egyptian king of the 2nd dynasty (c. 2775–c. 2650 BC), who promoted the cult of the god Seth over that of Horus, the god favoured by his predecessors. His tomb was located in Seth's district in Upper Egypt, at Abydos. According to some scholars, Peribsen's ascendancy was accompanied by a violent reaction against the supporters of Horus, but the supremacy of Horus was restored after his

Devaluation

2004-09-11T04:54:00.000-07:00

Reduction in the exchange value of a country's monetary unit in terms of gold, silver, or foreign monetary units. Devaluation is employed to eliminate persistent balance-of-payments deficits, because devaluation has the effect of decreasing prices of the home country's exports in terms of the importer's currency and, at the same time, increasing prices of imports

Mental Disorder, Major affective disorders

2004-09-08T04:28:00.000-07:00

The DSM-III defines two major, or severe, affective disorders: bipolar disorder and major depression. A person with bipolar disorder, which has traditionally been called manic-depressive psychosis, typically experiences discrete episodes of depression and then of mania lasting for a few weeks or months, with intervening periods of complete normality. The sequence

Usair Group, Inc.

2004-09-06T23:42:00.000-07:00

Beginning service in 1939 as a mail carrier over the mountainous

Bobbin Lace

2004-09-03T06:23:00.000-07:00

Also called pillow lace , or bone lace with needle lace, one of two main kinds of lace. Bobbin lace is made with a number of threads, each fastened to an elongated spool (bobbin). A pattern is drawn on parchment or paper, and holes are pricked to indicate where pins will be placed to keep the threads in position while the lace is being made. The parchment is placed on a pillow or cushion, and the threads, with the bobbins

Houghton (of Great Houghton), Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron

2004-09-02T09:58:00.000-07:00

At Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1831, Houghton joined the socially and artistically progressive Apostles Club, which included among its members the poets Alfred Tennyson and Arthur

Rybnik

2004-08-31T04:26:00.000-07:00

Beginning as a fishing village in the 10th century, Rybnik became capital of the Racibórz principality

Palace Museum

2004-08-27T17:20:00.000-07:00

The palace itself consists of many separate halls and courtyards. The outer buildings of the palace became a museum in 1914, although the imperial family continued to live in the private apartments until 1924. Many

Orzeszkowa, Eliza

2004-08-24T14:13:00.000-07:00

Née Eliza Pawlowska Polish novelist and a leading writer of the Positivist period (the Polish Positivists took their name from Auguste Comte's philosophy but were themselves mainly utilitarians). Questions of education, independence, and marriage in Orzeszkowa's works were eventually overshadowed by issues such

Vigée-lebrun, élisabeth

2004-08-22T13:52:00.000-07:00

Her father was Louis Vigée, a pastel portraitist and her first teacher. She studied later with a number of well-known painters, among them J.-B. Greuze and Joseph Vernet. In 1776 she married a picture dealer,

Alvensleben-erxleben, Gustav, Graf Von (count Of)

2004-08-21T22:43:00.000-07:00

As a member of the Prussian general staff (1847–58), Alvensleben participated in the suppression of the revolution of 1849 in Baden and was named chief of staff for the troops that remained in occupation. In 1854 he